Starting with the Indus Valley civilization around 2500 BC, India has been the site for significant historical and philosophical developments intermeshed with several facets of scientific and technological activities. Recent excavations at Kalibangan  (Rajasthan) and Lothal (Gujarat) have underlined the singular achievements of this period in history, especially in the spheres of town planning and building of houses using standard burnt bricks, interlinked drainage system, wheel - turned ceramics, solid wheel carts and the use of copper and bronze in various products.
 
Charak Samhita and Sushrita accompanied by the classics on Ayurveda of the sixth century BC are widely acknowledged as important milestones in the field of Medicine and Surgery. As far as metallurgy was concerned, according to the Rasvatnakar, the very first batch of zinc to be distilled by man took place around 50 BC in Zawar, Rajasthan. The concept of zero so crucial to the development of the science is again India's contribution to the world, which was given to Europe through the Arabs. In 850 A.D., Mahaviracharya, the greatest Jain mathematician mentions the significance of zero in Ganita Sara Samgraha. In the fifth century BC Brahmagupta became the first mathematician to solve the Pellian equation. A century later, Aryabhatta arrived at the most accurate value of the mathematical constant, Pi, in the Gitikapada. In the Kalpasutras, penned in 290 BC, Bhadrabahu solved the Pythagorean theorem. These were the earliest in a long tradition of great mathematicians and scientists that the country has produced.

Twentieth century AD witnessed India producing some of the greatest and internationally renowned luminaries in the field of Science. S.N. Bose, famous for Bose-Einstein statistics; Meghnad Saha, whose Saha theory of thermal ionisation is crucial to our understanding of spectra observed in astrophysics; Ramanujam and his singular contributions to Number Theory; Jayant Narlikar, who together with Hoyle made a tremendous contribution to the theories of the evolution of the Universe, are some of them.

Post Independence

Since 1947, with the metamorphosis of the country, as a new politically independent nation, India continues to pursue a programme of employing modern science and technology for national development. At present, the country spends about 0.83 percent of its GNP on scientific and technological development.

In the field of basic research, the country has done notably and has established major research groups with world-class capabilities in various emerging and frontline areas of Science & Technology. Some examples are the areas of Molecular Biophysics, Molecular Biology, Neurobiology, Liquid Crystals, Biomedical Devices, Superconductivity, Condensed Matter Physics, Astronomy and Astrophysics, Powder Processing and Advanced Materials, Organic Chemistry, Solid State and Surface Chemistry, Numerical Weather Prediction, Parallel Processing and Atmospheric Sciences.

In the high-tech area of Space Research, India can now design, build and operate state-of the-art communication and remote sensing satellites as well as launch 1000 kg class remote sensing satellites into polar sun-synchronous orbits.

S & T System in India

During the last four decades India generated a sound S&T infrastructure, both in terms of manpower and capabilities. With a chain of nearly 200 national laboratories and an equal number of R&D institutions in the central sector coupled with about 1300 R&D units in the industrial sector. In addition to R&D establishments, the other major body pursuing S&T activities in India is the country's vast university system. Comprising 237 universities, 39 institutions deemed to be universities and 10 institutes of national importance, it is a major source of S&T manpower development, producing around 200,000 S&T personnel every year.

Scientific Policy Resolution

Post - Independence, conscious efforts were made to enhance and modernise the scientific infrastructure in the country by establishing a series of national laboratories, institutes of advanced technical education, universities etc. Pt. Jawaharlal Nehru, the first Prime Minister of the country, was devoted to building these " modern temples " for national development. On March 4, 1958 the Parliament passed the Scientific Policy Resolution (SPR), which emphasizes the Government's responsibility " to foster, promote and sustain, by all appropriate means, the cultivation of science and scientific research in all its aspects - pure, applied and educational ".

The SPR also intends " to secure for the people of the country all the benefits that can accrue from the acquisition and application of scientific knowledge ". The Government has been following this resolution through its ministries and departments.

Technology Policy Statement

Acknowledging the vital role technology plays in the development of society, a Technology Policy Statement ( TPS ) was formulated in 1983, with the principal aim of developing indigenous technology and ensuring efficient absorption and adaptation of imported technology appropriate to national priorities and availability of resources. It is aimed at attaining technical competence and self - reliance, reducing vulnerability especially in strategic areas and fully utilising indigenous resources. The TPS also aims at employing traditional skills and capabilities making them commercially competitive.

Planning and Expenditure

The Government has made great efforts at planning and allocating appropriate resources as part of the development process. From the beginning of the First Five Year Plan, the programmes of various national laboratories and scientific departments have been propped up by allocating resources. Planning for the fields of science and technology is mainly achieved by preparing plans for the following three sectors in an independent manner: a) plans for the scientific departments, namely, Department of Science and Technology, Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, Department of Biotechnology, Department of Ocean Development, Department of Space and Department of Atomic Energy, Department of Electronics, Ministry of Environment and Forests; b) planning for science and technology component of over 30 socio - economic ministries / departments including organizations like Indian Council of Medical Research, Indian Council of Agricultural Research, Central Board for Irrigation and Power, etc., and c) a separate Science and Technology sector in the plans of states and union territories.

Science and Technology Infrastructure

Scientific and technological activities in India can be divided into the following categories: a) Central Government, b) state governments, c) higher educational sector, d) public and private sector industry and e) non - profit institutions / associations. These institutional structures, equipped with research laboratories, are the principal contributors to the country's research and development work.

Programmes of the Scientific Department

The Department of Science and Technology, established in 1971, has formulated policy statements and guidelines, provided mechanisms of coordination in areas of science and technology in which a number of institutions and departments have interests, supported grants - in - aid to scientific research, institutions and professional bodies. The main functions of the Department are given below.

Research and Development Programe

One of the vital activities of the Department of Science and Technology has been to identify and promote frontline and priority areas of Research and Development (R & D) in various disciplines of science and technology. This is carried out through the carefully evolved mechanism of Science and Engineering Research Council (SERC), an advisory body comprising prominent scientists and technologists from various national laboratories, universities and industry. The Council helps the Department not only in identification of new and inter - disciplinary areas of R&D but also promotes and supervises the progress of these fields by providing financial assistance in the form of research projects, establishing national facilities specially required for promoting a given discipline and area of science and technology. Every year, the Department receives around 1000 projects, most of them under the category of basic sciences and engineering research, for consideration. The programmes related to units / core groups or setting up of national facilities, coordinated programmes are supported under the programme-Intensification of Research in High Priority Areas (RHPA). Some of the vital areas under this scheme are Nano materials and Carbon Chemistry, Photo Chemistry, Neuro Science, Satellite Plasma Research Programme, Climate Research, Non- Linear Dynamics Liquid Crystals etc.

Regional Sophisticated Instrumentation Centres (RSICs) have been set up by the Department to cater to the need of the scientists by providing them instruments required for sundry R & D activities. Besides, special opportunities are given to scientists, such as national and international fellowships, summer and winter schools for training particularly to encourage young and budding scientists for pursuing research career. Around 100 scientists are supported every year.

Technology Development

The Department, as part of its technology promotion programmes, has assisted in the initiation of specific technology missions which involve the development of product sub - systems such as biological pest control, bio - fertilizer and aquaculture in the Department of Biotechnology; parallel computing, new materials, selected retrofit automation, air navigation system, micro - electronics and photonics in the Department of Electronics; leather and clean coal technologies in the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research. Four initiatives launched by the Department of Science and Technology are: advanced composites, fly ash disposal and utilization, seismicity and sugar production technologies.

As envisaged in the Technology Policy Statement of 1983 and following the recommendations of the Technology Policy Implementation Committee, the Department has established an autonomous body - Technology Information, Forecasting and Assessment Council (TIFAC). The main objectives of TIFAC include generation of Technology Forecasting (TF) and Technology Assessment (TA) documents and enabling a Technology Information System, which is interactive and nationally accessible. Technology Forecasting / Technology Assessment (TF/TA) studies have so far been carried out in areas of human settlement planning/building technology and skills; sugar industry, steel, materials technology, automated machinery and production systems, foundry modernization, energy, high volume industrial gases and prospects for biotechnology products in India by 2000 AD in health and agricultural sectors.

The major milestones of TIFAC's implementation efforts are the technology projects on a Mission Mode approved by the Government of India for Sugar Production Technologies, Advanced Composites and Fly Ash Disposal and Utilisation.

S&T Programmes for Socio - Economic Development

The Department of Science and Technology has specific programmes to support application of science and technology to directly benefit the economically weaker sections of society. Special schemes have also been launched for problems affecting the poor amongst scheduled castes and remote and primitive tribal groups as part of the special component plan and tribal sub-plan of the Department. Expertise of retired scientists and the zest of young scientists in such activities is adequately encouraged through appropriate support. Through a unique programme devoted to encouraging graduates in various branches of S&T to take up entrepreneurship as a possible vocation, the Department, through its National Science and Technology Entrepreneurship Development Board (NSTEDB), established in 1982, has imparted training in entrepreneurship to approximately 12,000 persons so far.

The uniqueness of these activities is the involvement of academics, scientists and technologists in socially relevant schemes such as employment generation. Further, voluntary agencies and a few government agencies have also been inducted in this scheme. In this process of encouraging innovation and entrepreneurship, Science and Technology Entrepreneurs Parks (STEPs) have been created in 12 locations in and around engineering institutions and other academic and R&D institutions of excellence spread all over the country.

International Cooperation

India has signed bilateral pacts on cooperation in the spheres of S&T with 55 nations, which include France, Germany, Israel, Japan, Russia, UK, USA, China, Mauritius, Mongolia, Singapore, Sri Lanka, and Vietnam among others.

S&T institutions in association with Indian and German industries are studying rough diamond coatings and plasma immersion ion implantation. Bilateral dealings with Japan got a much-needed fillip under the aegis of the IndiaJapan Science Council. The Indo-Mauritius Radio Telescope Project for astronomical observations is one of its kinds in the southern hemisphere. The Indo-French Centre for Promotion of Advanced Research (IFCPAR) and the Integrated Long-term Programme of Cooperation with Russia are some of the agreements signed by India. The International Advanced Research Centre for Powder Metallurgy and new materials (ARC-I) established at Hyderabad with the involvement of Russia, Ukraine, Belarus, Moldova and Uzbekistan, supplied on commercial scale detonation coatings on aircraft turbine blades, molybdenum discs as supporting substrates for silicon wafers in diodes thyristors, iron graphite bushes for anti friction applications and other products. A few technologies like synthetic diamond powder production, artificial marble were taken up for lateral technology transfer from the CIS countries to the Indian industry.

The regional programmes of cooperation include collaborative activities with the European Community and the SAARC countries. The main factors within the multilateral programmes have been the Centre for Science and Technology of Non - Aligned and other countries (NAM S&T Centre), UNDP projects and UNESCO related activities.

Autonomous Scientific Institutions

The Department, as part of its programme for supporting science and technology activities all over the country, provides grants-in-aid to the following 13 autonomous scientific research institutions, involved in prime areas of research in basic and applied sciences:

a) Bose Institute, Calcutta
b) Agharkar Research Institute, Pune
c) Sree Chitra Tirunal Institute of Medical Sciences and Technology, Thiruvananthapuram
d) Indian Association for the Cultivation of Sciences, Calcutta
e) Indian Institute for Tropical Meteorology, Pune
f) Institute of Plasma Research, Bhat, Gandhinagar
g) Indian Institute of Astrophysics, Bangalore
h) Jawaharlal Nehru Centre for Advanced Scientific Research, Bangalore
i) Raman Research Institute, Bangalore
j) S. N. Bose National Centre for Basic Sciences, Calcutta
k) Birbal Sahni Institute of Palaeobotany, Lucknow
l) Indian Institute of Geomagnetism, Bombay
m) Wadia Institute of Himalayan Geology, Dehradun